Cultural Homelessness

PSY410H1F: Developmental Psychology Seminar Alisa Alvis

Seminar Essay:

Multiethnic Identities and “Cultural Homelessness”:

The moral lives of “Nowhereians”

“Home is where the heart is.”

This saying resonates with almost every person who hears it. When we think of home we imagine a place where we feel loved and protected; a place where we belong. As simple as this concept seems, the definition of home presents a unique problem for native persons of mixed ethnic background. This is not to say that multiethnic individuals do not experience the love provided by their immediate family circle, but rather it refers to a confusion pertaining to home as a function of ancestral origin. Let me offer a practical example in myself:

I am the child of a multiethnic home. My father’s parents are Scottish and Portuguese while my mother’s parents are African/ Carib Indian and East Indian. In addition, although my parents are from St.Vincent and I claim a Vincentian nationality, I was born and raised in Bermuda until the age of ten. Subsequent repatriation to St.Vincent has left the country’s stamp on my identity, but I still “feel” Bermudian. So, in addition to being multiethnic I also have a complex identity based on the two places in which I have lived – I even have the different accents to prove it!

Persons who have parents and grandparents of two or more ethnicities or nationalities or who have made multiple geographic moves face the challenge of creating an abstract idea of “home” that encompasses all the varied threads of their existence. This dilemma is some results in a state of “cultural homelessness” (CH).¹ This unique condition of perceived multiple belonging yet “unbelonging” can result in developmental challenges for the individual as they attempt to navigate the changing norms, values and attachment and communication styles of their different relatives as well as those of the surrounding culture.

The life of the multiethnic individual is typified by incessant code-switching which may create a feeling of social hypervigilance and anxiety. Such conditions can pathologize, resulting in emotional and social disorders. However, the outlook is not completely bleak – multiethnics may have the privileged position of truly being able to see a variety of ethnic points of view and hence enjoy stronger cognitive and social repertoires. This essay explores the definition and creation of the multiethnic identity and examines the meaning and repercussions of “cultural homelessness”. In closing I will discuss the developmental challenges which multiethnic individuals face and their position within our developing multicultural society.

The 21^st century seems to be the era of multiculturalism. Intermarriage between ethnic groups is taking place at a rate that is swiftly blurring the lines between one ethnicity and the next. But before we discuss this phenomenon we must take this time to define a few key terms. Culture can be defined as the way a given society conduct itself that distinguishes it from other societies. Culture is a dynamic and complex set of values, beliefs, norms, patterns of thinking, styles of communication, linguistic expressions and ways of interpreting and interacting with the world.² Deterministic rules specify what is or isn’t culturally correct. Culture varies with nationality, race and ethnicity. Many people do not think of race and ethnicity as separate constructs, however, they each refer to very specific ideas.

There has been much debate on whether race exists as a biological phenomenon, but there is a consensus that the term race is used primarily to emphasize the genetic heritage of a person. Genotype and its phenotypical expression are used to position people within a racial category. Racial self-identification refers to the ability to define oneself as part of a particular race. Ideas of race ore rigidly socially determined and rely on one’s appearance. The unfortunate consequence of this is that persons who do not fit the stereotypical image of a particular race may be excluded. This occurs at both extremes with the bi- or multiracial person with predominately Caucasian features being defined as “white” or the inverse – a person with predominately non-white features, being defined as such to the exclusion of their white heritage. Indeed, the theory of hypodescent or the “one-drop rule” which classifies people according to class as opposed to choice has resulted many multiracial individuals being identified according to the blood of their lower status parent. According to such rules the child of a black and white union is regarded as black.

In contrast to race, ethnicity refers to the sociocultural heritage that is inherited by an individual. Ethnic self identification requires the ability to make intergroup comparisons, categorize people and form a social self concept. Since ethnicity is a function of those customs which are handed down from multiple sources, ethnicity is a protean entity which provides more opportunity for personal choice than race. Teja Arboleda, the multiracial author of In the Shadow of Race (1998) is a mixture of Black, Filipino, Native American and German but he grew up in Japan. Ethnically he identifies as Japanese despite having no biological Japanese ancestry. An important consequence of this difference between race and ethnicity is that people who differ in race also differ in ethnicity, but the reverse may not be true. This creates the possibility of multiethnic identities even for those who are monoracial, due to immigration of extensive travel. Existing races and ethnicities may interact to yield countless possibilities, but most people eventually arrive at a single ethnic identity. How does this happen?

There are several models of racial/ethnic identity formation. One of the foremost theorists is Jean Phinney who proposes a stage-theory for the formation of ethnic identity. According to her model, people move from Stage 1: non-examination of ethnicity, until adolescence, at which point they reach Stage 2: exploration of the personal impact of ethnic heritage. Finally in late adolescence Stage 3 marks the attainment of an ethnic self concept. In this model the racial or ethnic choice which individuals make is heavily dependent cultural information supplied being plentiful and consistently supplied by either their family or society. Hence, such a model may be suitable for monoracial or unmarked groups but when applied to multiethnic individuals it creates a forced choice at either end of a continuum of identities and may not be entirely suitable.³

The creation of multiethnic identities may possibly be understood as extension of second-culture acquisition. Five models have been used to understand the process of change that occurs in transitions within, between and among cultures: assimilation, acculturation, alternation, multiculturalism and fusion. Although each of these theories has implications for the multiethnic individual for the purposes of this essay I will focus on multiculturalism. This model addresses the feasibility of members of different cultures maintaining distinct identities even as they work together to facilitate common national or economic needs.⁴ When used to understand the identity of individuals this model generates the hypothesis that maintenance of positive identity with respect to country of origin is possible while simultaneously developing an identity based on institutional sharing with a larger political entity comprised by other cultural groups. Berry and his colleagues posited that within a multicultural society the individual can choose to assimilate, integrate, separate or marginalize. Integration would represent the incorporation of the features of more than one culture into a unified identity. ⁵ This model has the same problem as Phinney’s theory due to its presupposition of a single “culture of origin” which interacts with one other culture. Multiethnic individuals may not have a conception of a single culture of origin and the interactions may require the integration of three or more different ethnicities.

In an attempt to conceive of a model for multiracial identity, Jacobs (1992) proposed a theory that allows for a fluid identity. He described the stages as being (a) a precolor constancy stage where children experiment with different racial identities and understandings of color; (b) a racial ambivalence stage where children have a fuller understanding of color and the social meaning attached to skin colors; and (c) a biracial identity stage where children understand that group membership is correlated with skin color but is determined by parentage, social norms and personal choice. This model is potentially a useful one for the study of biracial individuals but fails to account for choices which pertain to ethnicity. As noted above, a person may be race does not equate to ethnicity, so how do multiethnic individuals conceive of their identity?

All of the models discussed rely on the existence of a “base” culture which is used as a referent with other cultures being incorporated into one’s identity with respect to it. For multicultural individuals, such clear cut choices may not be available. Like myself, one may be faced with a situation in which each parent and grandparent is of a different race and ethnicity. In situations like these where is the “base”? Is there some underlying common ground? The answer may be “no” Members of a monoculture enjoy what Vivero & Jenkins refer to as a cultural home. Individuals within a monoculture have a single shared heritage which contains ideas of collective identity and ethnic group formation. The construct of a cultural home emphasizes the emotional aspects of group membership, identification, attachment and belonging. There exists a sense of ethnic or geographic community with consistent socialization themes and clear demarcations of in-groups and out-groups. This cultural framework provides a means for individuals to learn what is appropriate and forms the basis of the development of a personal identity.

Although cultural homes can be geographically defined they need not be stable in this respect. Gypsies are nomadic people, but their home travels with them constantly remaining within their group in the form of a conscious cultural identity maintained via language, dress, rituals, social norms and verbal and non-verbal communication. For them “home” is purely metaphysical but it still retains existence as a social locality that they can “go” to. ⁶ Similar collective history and practices allow for the individual to find social meaning and continuity as well as support within one’s group

Multiethnic individuals may not have the luxury of a cultural home. Many multiethnic people describe a feeling of being “both yet neither”. These are individuals who are not just minorities but multiple minorities; they have qualities of multiple groups but the intermixture of the groups within them makes them unique and it is this uniqueness which prevents them from belonging to any one racial, ethnic or cultural group. For them, all groups are out-groups. Concepts which most people take for granted such as primary language, main familial culture and home take on new meanings for multiethnic people. Children in these situations may be confronted with parents and grandparents who each maintain strongly held monocultural traditions and to interact with each one they must develop new and sometimes contradictory methods of communication. Subjective experiences of the self may differ with each interaction and may result in divergent and contradictory construals of the self and others especially if change occurs unpredictably.

Cultural homelessness is the term developed by Vivero and Jenkins to describe the peculiar feelings of certain individuals living within a multiethnic framework. These individuals have no one ethnic group with which they can identify. The long to go “home” but they don’t know how to get there because they don’t know what it feels like to have a cultural home. Immigrants to a new culture may experience the sensation of “not being at home” until they adapt to their new surroundings. In contrast, culturally homeless individuals lack a coherent sense of home, their feeling is one of “not having a home”. They are minorities wherever they go⁷: Nowhereians.

Culture is the main influence on individuals’ value systems as well as their notions of what is socially acceptable, and modes of communication and styles of attachment. Since variations of culture can be accounted for by differences in ethnicity, children in multiethnic families face special challenges. In their formative years, these children may experience conflicting frames of reference because of the difference in the ethnic groups of their family members. These children become adept at code-switching which involves changing one’s behaviors and mannerisms according to the social situation. Code-switching cues may be subtle and non-verbal and difficult to recognize. Contradictory behaviors may be learnt as both right and wrong and attachment styles used for one family member may not be suitable for another. Similarly what is a moral issue for one family member may simply be a matter of convention for another. This lack of consistency can lead to the disruption of the child’s ability to for a secure attachment or identification with any culture, resulting in alienation.⁸

At the core of cultural homelessness are feelings of rejection, confusion and isolation. Individuals who experience CH are likely to have been rejected by both sides other family. Preoccupations with how to behave in order to belong may lead hypervigilance in social spheres. If their attempts to be accepted are not successful they may abandon their efforts as futile and regard their “failure” to fit is as indicative of some personal deficit.⁹ Chronic overwhelming contradictory demands form the central risk factor for multiethnic children. Expectations, rules and socially acceptable behaviors that have not been clearly defined or have not been consistent throughout their lives may hinder their ability to differentiate between what to do and when. Feelings of ambivalence develop as well as the defining of the self as “different”. Shame and embarrassment due to social faux pas may place the child at odds with his or her peers, who tend to exaggerate the frequency and importance of these cultural missteps. Eventually a rationale of self-blame will develop as well as frustration if they feel as if they have to choose one ethnicity over another, especially if the frames of reference of the two cultures are totally contradictory.

This contradiction is eloquently expressed by Markus and Kitayama (1991) who give the example of a European-Japanese-American child living in the United States who is expected to be simultaneously be independent and autonomous, question authority, self-explore, stand out, solve his or her own problems and express his or her feelings while accepting and following unquestionable norms, blending with, seeking parental guidance, being silently obedient and yielding to authority and putting his or her needs aside on the behalf of familial harmony.¹⁰ Lack of stability in childhood and adolescence and the absence of outside acculturative experiences to put these differing expectations in context may lead to conflict in the multicultural child who has internalized discrepant behaviors as appropriate in certain situations but is unable to integrate them. The child may have the sense of never doing anything right and is constantly confused.

It should be noted however, that what I have presented above is a worst case scenario. There is a tendency within research and popular culture to construct multiethnic individuals as “tragic” and pathologize them. Multiethnic children who are raised in an environment where efforts are made to facilitate knowledge of all facets of their identity and encourage a healthy integrated ethnic identity may show clear advantages due to the variety of their experiences. The same reliance on code-switching which can lead to such confusion, if channeled and utilized correctly without harsh recriminations for missteps can be a notable cognitive and social strength. Multiethnic individuals are often noted for their enhanced cognitive flexibility, independent problem-solving and the ability to adapt to constantly changing social environments. Fine nuances of communication and social perception come easily to them and their feelings of empathy a highly attuned. As with anything that which makes the life of multiethnic individuals so challenging may also be a blessing. Their ability to see several facets of a moral issue may make them skilled navigators and capable of making sound judgments in a variety of settings.

Clearly, multiethnicity has an effect on culture and morals that is distinct mono- or bi-ethnicity. Ultimately social context may mediate the moral script that is chosen. As Mercedes Baines, a multiracial woman, notes, “There is not a simple answer – I do not fit in a simple box. It depends on the day the color I feel.”¹¹ But with the right developmental environments, the outlook is bright for the multiethnic child. Acknowledgment of the special needs of these individuals and further research into their particular viewpoint will prove invaluable in a world where the racial and ethnic lines become more blurred every day. An understanding of how to assist in the creation of stable, healthy ethnic identity is of greatest importance in assuring that multiethnic children grow up well adjusted and prepared for the surrounding social world and awareness is what is necessary to rid the world of the vulgar dichotomies that exist in binary ethnic choice.

REFERENCES

Berry, J.W., Poortinga, Y.P., Segall, M.H., & Dasen, P.R.Cross Cultural Psychology: Research and Applications, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2^nd Ed., 2002

C. Camper (Ed.) Miscegenation Blues: Voices of mixed race women, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Sister Vision: Black Women and Women of Color Press, 1994

Goldberger, N.R. & Veroff, J.B. (Eds.) The Culture and Psychology Reader, New York University Press, 1995

Herman, M. (2004) Forced to Choose: Some Determinants of Racial Identification in Multiracial Adolescents, Child Development, Vol. 75, No. 3,

Hershel, J.J. (1995) Therapeutic perspectives on biracial ethnic identity: A review of the increasing dilemma, Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 23, 29-38

Pusch, M.D (Ed.) Multicultural Education, Intercultural Network, Pittsburgh, 1981

Markus, H.R & Kitayama, S. (1991) Culture and the Self: Implications for cognition, emotion and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253

Park, R.E. (1928) Human migration and the marginal man, American Journal of Sociology, 33, 881-893

Oetting, E.R. & Beauvais, F. (1991) Orthogonal cultural identification pf minority adolescents. International Journal of the Addictions, 25, 655-685

Vivero, V.N (1997) Understanding and treating “culturally homeless” clients. Paper presented at the Association for Women in Psychology’s 22^nd Annual Feminist Psychology Conference, Pittsburgh, PA

Vivero, V.N. & Jenkins, S.J. (1999) Existential Hazards of the Multicultural Individual: Defining and Understanding “Cultural Homelessness”, Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, Vol.5, No. 1, pg. 6-26

1 Vivero, V.N. & Jenkins, S.J. (1999) Existential Hazards of the Multicultural Individual: Defining and Understanding “Cultural Homelessness”, Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, Vol.5, No. 1, pg .6

2 Hoopes, D. & Pusch, M.D., (1981) “Definition of Terms”, in Multicultural Education, Pusch, M.D (Ed.), pg.3

3 Herman, M. (2004) Forced to Choose: Some Determinants of Racial Identification in Multiracial Adolescents, Child Development, Vol. 75, No. 3, pg.732

4 Laframboise, T., Coleman, H.L.K. & Gerton, J. (1995) Psychological Impact of Biculturalism, in The Culture and Psychology Reader, Goldberger, N.R. & Veroff, J.B. (Eds.), pg. 504

5 Berry, J.W., Poortinga, Y.P., Segall, M.H., & Dasen, P.R. (1992) Cross Cultural Psychology: Research and Applications, pg. 375-378

6 Park, R.E. (1928) Human migration and the marginal man, American Journal of Sociology, 33, 881-893

7 Vivero, V.N (1997) Understanding and treating “culturally homeless” clients.

8 Oetting, E.R. & Beauvais, F. (1991) Orthogonal cultural identification pf minority adolescents. International Journal of the Addictions, 25, 655-685

9 Hershel, J.J. (1995) Therapautic perspectives on biracial ethnic identity: A review of the increasing dilemma, Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 23, 29-38

10 Markus, H.R & Kitayama, S. (1991) Culture and the Self: Implications for cognition, emotion and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253

11 Baines, M. (1994) Where are you from? A broken record. In C. Camper (Ed.) Miscegenation Blues: Voices of mixed race women, pg, 150-152

PaIIse

So, I had this foolish idea that what I finished doing my GRE General and GRE Psych exams I would have some time on my hands to update my blog.

That was before I sat down at my desk today and start to wade through the paperwork for all my Ph.D. applications.

Granted since I did undergrad a lot has changed. Applications forms are electronic for the most part, including those to be filled out by references. However, the Educational Psychology or School and Clinical Psychology programs I am applying to tend to be interdisciplinary so navigating the sites of the schools in search of all the correct forms is more challenging than one would think. Some are over in graduate admissions. Some are over in the Teacher’s College. Some in the Psychology Department. Some in the Education Department.

Some have all their admissions information on the program website only to reroute you back to the graduate registrar to do the forms. Now, I’m applying to 9 schools. Each with different requirements. Some with 2 references, some with three. Some need certified copies of my diplomas. Some need GRE General only, some need the Psych test too. I have to get my letters of intent together. I gotta order my BSc. and MSc. transcripts and have them couriered. Howard has some mysterious psychological battery that I have to take apparently as well as an “autobiographical sketch”.

Right now, my desktop, Microsoft Word, and bookmarks in Firefox are the e-equivalent of this:

Most of the deadlines are before December 15th. I’m shooting to get everything off by December 1st. It seems prudent to write off the next 3 weeks where updating the blog is concerned.

I miiiiiight post a bit over at PostBourgie, but I’m not sure – I depends on whether I see something that absolutely BEGS to be written about. If I do it will be cross posted over here of course.

Rememeber, remember the 5th of November

There are no words….

It’s a surreal day to be alive.

(h/t to Obsidian Wings for the pics)

Generation “Why?”

Those of us born after 1978 or so are pretty special.

My political consciousness underwent a serious overhaul in undergrad. Despite the fact that I had already voted in a national election in my home country I still wasn’t too sure of my voice. I got involved in a few campus organizations and by sophomore year I was on my way to community service and activism. There was nothing that could compare to the thrill I got when we planned something, pulled it off and felt like we made a difference. This will sound corny but suddenly I felt like part of the world. At executive meetings for the Student’s Administrative Council or the Black Students’ Association or the non-profit tutoring outfit we ran, I would sometimes just listen…and marvel. All of us did. We were young and hopeful and felt useful…powerful…and useful. You’d look around those tables and see people who you just *knew* were going to be smart, influential and groundbreaking. We were what was next.

Harnessing that kind of agency and youthful energy is one of the things I believe will become increasingly important during this century. When people believe they are part of something, part of a “we” that is working towards a goal, it is a mighty force. We are remarkably flexible, diverse and innovative, but more importantly we’re curious. The ability to ask “why?” and refuse to blindly accept things on the basis of tradition my be our salvation.

Are you part of Generation Why?

* cheeses *

I’m doing the GRE on Saturday hence my truancy with regards to my blog. But I’ll be back once all the madness is over, I pinky-swear!

In the meantime though my blog entry about Don Draper of Mad Men that was cross posted at Post Bourgie was also linked here and here.

Yeah, I’m cheesing.

So what if my bar for perceived fame is hella low. Whatev.

I’m famous on teh innanets!